<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><article article-type="normal" xml:lang="en">
   <front>
      <journal-meta>
         <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">PALEVO</journal-id>
         <issn>1631-0683</issn>
         <publisher>
            <publisher-name>Elsevier</publisher-name>
         </publisher>
      </journal-meta>
      <article-meta>
         <article-id pub-id-type="pii">S1631-0683(03)00115-5</article-id>
         <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.crpv.2003.06.002</article-id>
         <article-categories>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="type">
               <subject>Research article</subject>
            </subj-group>
            <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
               <subject>Evolution</subject>
            </subj-group>
         </article-categories>
         <title-group>
            <article-title>Gradual evolution in the African hunting dog lineage Systematic implications</article-title>
         </title-group>
         <contrib-group content-type="authors">
            <contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
               <name>
                  <surname>Martínez-Navarro</surname>
                  <given-names>Bienvenido</given-names>
               </name>
               <email>bienvenido.martinez@icrea.es</email>
               <xref rid="AFF1" ref-type="aff">
                  <sup>a</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <contrib contrib-type="author">
               <name>
                  <surname>Rook</surname>
                  <given-names>Lorenzo</given-names>
               </name>
               <email>brook@geo.unifi.it</email>
               <xref rid="AFF2" ref-type="aff">
                  <sup>b</sup>
               </xref>
            </contrib>
            <aff-alternatives id="AFF1">
               <aff>
                  <label>a</label> ICREA Researcher, Grup d'Autoecologica Humana, Area de Prehistòria, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Plaça Imperial Tarraco, 1, 43005 Tarragona, Spain</aff>
            </aff-alternatives>
            <aff-alternatives id="AFF2">
               <aff>
                  <label>b</label> Department of Earth Sciences and Natural History Museum (Geology and Paleontology section), via G. La Pira 4, 50121 Firenze, Italy</aff>
            </aff-alternatives>
         </contrib-group>
         <pub-date-not-available/>
         <volume>2</volume>
         <issue seq="8">8</issue>
         <issue-id pub-id-type="pii">S1631-0683(00)X0015-2</issue-id>
         <fpage seq="0" content-type="normal">695</fpage>
         <lpage content-type="normal">702</lpage>
         <history>
            <date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2003-03-20"/>
            <date date-type="revised" iso-8601-date="2003-06-16"/>
            <date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2003-06-16"/>
         </history>
         <permissions>
            <copyright-statement>© 2003 Published by Elsevier Masson SAS.</copyright-statement>
            <copyright-year>2003</copyright-year>
         </permissions>
         <self-uri xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" content-type="application/pdf" xlink:href="main.pdf">
                        Full (PDF)
                    </self-uri>
         <abstract abstract-type="author">
            <p>The hunting dog, <italic>Lycaon pictus,</italic> is one of the most representative species of the extant African fauna and one of the most efficient predators in the World. This species is actually a relict within Sub-Saharan Africa, but its lineage is well recorded in Eurasia during the Pliocene, and in Eurasia and Africa during the Early Pleistocene, while its record during the Middle Pleistocene is not well documented. Though postcranial skeletal remains dating from the Early Pleistocene show a tetradactyl forelimb, a characteristic feature of the extant lycaon, unique among canids, the upper and lower dentitions show gradual evolution from a primitive morphology in the Late Pliocene specimens to the highly specialized trenchant carnassials of the extant predatory species. We propose a new systematics for the lineage, grouping all the forms within the genus <italic>Lycaon.</italic>
            </p>
         </abstract>
         <trans-abstract abstract-type="author" xml:lang="fr">
            <p>
               <bold>Évolution graduelle de la lignée du lycaon africain.</bold> Le lycaon, <italic>Lycaon pictus,</italic> est une des espèces les plus caractéristiques de la faune africaine actuelle et l’un des prédateurs les plus efficaces du monde. Alors qu’il est aujourd’hui limité à l’Afrique sub-saharienne, sa lignée ancestrale est attestée en Eurasie au Pliocène supérieur, en Eurasie et en Afrique pendant le Pléistocène inférieur, tandis qu’elle est mal connue au Pléistocène moyen. Des restes fossiles post-crâniens datant du Pléistocène inférieur révèlent déjà un membre antérieur tétradactyle, caractéristique propre à cette lignée, alors que les molaires supérieures et inférieures montrent une évolution graduelle: de morphologie primitive chez les formes du Pliocène, elles sont très tranchantes chez l’espèce actuelle devenue hyperprédatrice. L’interprétation évolutive de cette lignée conduit à regrouper au sein du genre <italic>Lycaon</italic> toutes les formes qui lui été attribuées. </p>
         </trans-abstract>
         <kwd-group>
            <unstructured-kwd-group>
               <italic>Lycaon</italic>, Canidae, Plio-Pleistocene, Eurasia, Africa</unstructured-kwd-group>
         </kwd-group>
         <kwd-group xml:lang="fr">
            <unstructured-kwd-group>
               <italic>Lycaon</italic>, Canidae, Plio-Pléistocène, Eurasie, Afrique</unstructured-kwd-group>
         </kwd-group>
         <custom-meta-group>
            <custom-meta>
               <meta-name>presented</meta-name>
               <meta-value>Presented by Yves Coppens</meta-value>
            </custom-meta>
         </custom-meta-group>
      </article-meta>
   </front>
   <body>
      <sec xml:lang="fr">
         <title>Version française abrégée</title>
         <sec>
            <title>Introduction</title>
            <p>Les canidés sont caractérisés par une formule dentaire primitive conservant l’ensemble des dents, à l’exception de la M<sup>3</sup>. Chez les espèces actuelles, seul le cyon, <italic>Cuon alpinus</italic>, un hypercarnivore, a perdu la M<sub>3</sub>. Grâce à cette formule dentaire primitive, les canidés font preuve d’un grand opportunisme adaptatif [27].</p>
            <p>En Asie, la première occurrence d’un grand canidé de type moderne est signalée dans le « Villafranchien moyen », juste après la transition Gauss-Matuyama (2,5 Ma). En Europe, la première occurrence est un peu plus récente, vers 2,3 Ma, mais la radiation des canidés sur ce continent est connue juste avant la limite Plio-Pléistocène (autour de 2,0 Ma) [2,3,17].</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Caractéristiques de la lignée des lycaons</title>
            <sec>
               <title>Anatomie</title>
               <sec>
                  <p>Une systématique simplifiée a été établie pour les chiens de type lycaon du Pliocène récent et du Pléistocène ancien: toutes les formes de l’ancien monde ont été réunies dans un seul et unique ensemble spécifique, <italic>Canis</italic> (<italic>Xenocyon</italic>) ex gr. <italic>falconeri</italic> [16,25]. Or, les formes du Pléistocène ancien avaient déjà développé le caractère distinguant l’actuel <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic> des autres canidés, c’est-à-dire un membre antérieur tétradactyle [16]. Comme les lycaons, ces formes fossiles présentent un crâne relativement court, mais diffèrent encore fortement de l’espèce actuelle par l’anatomie primitive de la série dentaire, moins spécialisée.</p>
               </sec>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <title>Éthologie</title>
               <sec>
                  <p>L’éthologie de la forme fossile du Pléistocène ancien a été décrite pour le site de Venta Micena, en Espagne [14], où un crâne complet et sa mandibule associée ont été trouvés. Ce spécimen correspond à un individu âgé. Or, ce crâne porte plusieurs pathologies: il est asymétrique et montre que, tout au long de sa vie, cet animal n’a possédé ni canine supérieure droite, ni M<sub>3</sub> droite. Seul un comportement de collaboration sociale, comparable à celui observé chez l’actuel <italic>Lycaon pictus,</italic> a pu permettre à cet individu de survivre jusqu’à un âge avancé, malgré l’absence de cette canine et l’asymétrie importante de son crâne. Ce type de comportement était donc développé dès le Pléistocène ancien.</p>
               </sec>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Évolution morphologique de la denture</title>
            <sec>
               <p>L’évolution morphologique de cette lignée est dominée par la modification graduelle des fortes dents jugales primitives, connues dans le Pliocène ancien, vers des dents plus petites et en forme de lame, très hypercarnivores, connues chez le lycaon moderne (Fig. 1).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Les spécimens eurasiatiques du Pliocène supérieur (Figure 2) sont caractérisés par une M<sub>1</sub> à talonide large, avec deux cuspides indépendantes, ainsi que par une M<sub>2</sub> possédant un trigonide à deux cuspides, plus une cuspide pour le talonide. Les deux molaires supérieures sont larges et ont deux bassins, le plus grand étant au centre du trigône, le plus petit se situant entre le protocône et l’hypocône cingulaire. En conclusion, ces bassins accueillent respectivement le talonide de la M<sub>1</sub> et le trigonide de la M<sub>2</sub>. Cette forme primitive est notamment connue en Chine [23,28], mais elle a aussi été signalée en Europe [6].</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>L’espèce du Pléistocène ancien et du début du Pléistocène moyen est très bien documentée (Fig. 2) en Eurasie et en Afrique [1,4,5,7–9,11–15,18–21,24,26], mais sous des noms différents [16]. Elle se caractérise par la réduction en largeur du talonide de la M<sub>1</sub>, par l’augmentation de taille de l’hypoconide que tend à occuper le centre du talonide, et par la réduction de l’entoconide, qui peut être absent chez les formes du Pléistocène ancien terminal [20]. La largeur de la M<sub>2</sub> et son protoconide sont réduits eux aussi (Fig. 3). De même, les molaires supérieures présentent une largeur plus faible, ainsi qu’un bassin du trigône accru, le bassin situé entre le protocône et l’hypocône étant réduit jusqu’à avoir une taille très faible ou être totalement absent (Fig. 1).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
               <p>Le Pléistocène moyen représente une sorte de goulet d’étranglement dans l’évolution des lycaons, avec pratiquement aucun enregistrement fossile, jusqu’à leur réapparition hors d’Afrique, à la porte de l’Eurasie, dans un site du début du Paléolithique moyen ancien, Hayonim en Israël. Ce site a livré une hémi-mandibule droite [22]. La morphologie dentaire de ce spécimen est identique à l’actuelle forme africaine, <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>, qui possède une M<sub>1</sub> avec un talonide totalement unicuspidé et une M<sub>2</sub> à trigonide lui aussi unicuspidé (Fig. 1). Les molaires supérieures ont pratiquement perdu l’hypocône et un seul bassin apparaît dans le trigône.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <title>Conclusion</title>
            <sec>
               <p>Dans cette lignée, l’évolution de ces morphologies successives est graduelle. En conséquence, toutes les formes devraient être incluses dans le genre <italic>Lycaon</italic>, et trois chrono-espèces doivent être définies de la façon suivante: <italic>Lycaon falconeri</italic>, pour le Pliocène supérieur de l’Eurasie; <italic>Lycaon lycaonoides</italic>, pour le Pléistocène inférieur et le début du Pléistocène moyen d’Eurasie et d’Afrique; et <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>, pour le Pléistocène moyen à récent et l’actuelle forme d’Afrique.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>1</label>
         <title>Introduction</title>
         <sec>
            <p>Canids are characterized by a primitive dental formula preserving all the elements with the exception of the M<sup>3</sup>. Among the extant species only the Asian hyper-carnivorous dholes <italic>Cuon alpinus</italic> has lost the M<sub>3</sub>. Thanks to this primitive dental formula, canids have a wide range of adaptive opportunities, following different food behaviour strategies more than other more specialized carnivores such as felids or hyaenids <xref rid="BIB27" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The origin and evolution of the Old World canids during the Late Pliocene is a much-debated topic and is still obscure in several aspects. The oldest record of the large modern canids in Asia is known from ‘Middle Villafranchian’, just after the Gauss-Matuyama transition (2.5 Ma). In Europe the record is slightly younger at about 2.3 Ma, but the radiative explosion of canids in Europe occurred just below the Plio-Pleistocene boundary at the Olivola Faunal Unit (around 2.0 Ma) <xref rid="BIB17" ref-type="bibr">[17]</xref> with a major extinction of carnivores such as the raccoon-dog <italic>Nyctereutes megamastoides</italic> or the cursorial hyaenid <italic>Chasmaporthetes lunensis</italic>. This faunal turnover is known in Europe as the ‘<italic>Canis</italic> event’, one of major faunal renovation marking the Plio-Pleistocene transition in the continental record <xref rid="BIB2" ref-type="bibr">[2]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB3" ref-type="bibr">[3]</xref>. This event is detected by the appearance of three large canid species - <italic>Canis arnensis</italic> (coyote-like dog)<italic>, Canis etruscus</italic> (wolf-like dog), and <italic>Canis (Xenocyon) falconeri</italic> (lycaon-like dog) and the large scavenging hyaena <italic>Pachycrocuta brevirostris.</italic> This carnivore guild survives over most of Eurasia for more than 1 Ma until the cooling which marked the transition between the Early and the Middle Pleistocene.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>2</label>
         <title>Characteristics of the <italic>Lycaon</italic> lineage</title>
         <sec>
            <label>2.1</label>
            <title>Anatomy</title>
            <sec>
               <p>The systematics of the Late Pliocene and Early Pleistocene lycaon-like dogs has been summarized including all the Old World forms under the same specific group <italic>Canis (Xenocyon)</italic> ex gr. <italic>falconeri</italic>
                  <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB25" ref-type="bibr">[25]</xref>. These fossil canids are hyper carnivorous, larger in size than extant hunting dogs, and comparable with the living northern races of <italic>Canis lupus</italic>. The Early Pleistocene form of this lineage already developed a tetradactyl forelimb, characteristic feature of the extant species <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>, and unique among canids. Evidence for that has been identified in the sample from Pirro Nord (Italy), where a complete left metacarpal series (II–V) shows the absence of a functional articular surface for the Mc-I in the preserved Mc-II <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>. These fossil forms are characterized, like lycaons, by a relatively short cranium, but still differ strongly from the extant hunting dog in the morphology of the primitive, less specialized, dental series.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <label>2.2</label>
            <title>Ethology of fossil forms</title>
            <sec>
               <p>The ethology of the Early Pleistocene fossil form was studied in the site of Venta Micena, Spain <xref rid="BIB14" ref-type="bibr">[14]</xref>, where a complete skull with mandible was found. This specimen corresponds to an old individual, 6–7 years old, and shows several pathologies: it is asymmetric and, after a radiologic analysis it was possible to demonstrate that, during its life, it never had the right upper C and the right M<sub>3</sub>. These pathologies were, probably, the consequence of a high degree of endogamy in the populations of this carnivore species. The canine is a crucial element for a predatory carnivore, but this specimen survived to an old age without it and with a pronounced asymmetry in the skull. The survival of such a pathologic individual suggests that collaborative social behaviour, as seen in the extant species <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>, was already developed as early as the Early Pleistocene.</p>
            </sec>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>3</label>
         <title>Evolution of the dentition</title>
         <sec>
            <p>The evolution of this lineage is characterized by the gradual transformation of the primitive large molars of the Late Pliocene form into the smaller hypercarnivorous and trenchant teeth of the extant hunting dog (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref> ). The scarce paleontological record of complete cranial or postcranial elements corresponding to this lineage does not permit other anatomical transformations to be examined from the fossil forms to the extant species.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The Late Pliocene specimens from Asia as well as those from the Plio-Pleistocene transition from Europe (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref> ) are characterized by a wider talonid in the M<sub>1</sub> with two independent cuspids (hypoconid and entoconid) and a wider M<sub>2</sub> with two cuspids in the trigonid, the protoconid and metaconid, and another in the talonid, the hypoconid. The two upper molars (M<sup>1</sup> and M<sup>2</sup>) are wider and have two basins, the larger in the centre of the trigon and the smaller between the protocone and the cingular hypocone, for occlusion with the talonid of the M<sub>1</sub> and the trigonid of the M<sub>2</sub>, respectively. This primitive Late Pliocene form is recorded especially in China at sites of Loc. 33 (Yang Shao Tsun), Loc. 64 (Chihli Prov.) and Fan Tsun (Shanxi Prov.) <xref rid="BIB23" ref-type="bibr">[23]</xref> where it was named <italic>Canis antonii</italic>
               <xref rid="BIB28" ref-type="bibr">[28]</xref>, but it is also recorded in Europe (Upper Valdarno), as <italic>Canis (Xenocyon) falconeri</italic>
               <xref rid="BIB6" ref-type="bibr">[6]</xref>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The African Early Pleistocene and Eurasian Early Pleistocene and beginning of the Middle Pleistocene species is very well known (<xref rid="FIG2" ref-type="fig">Fig. 2</xref>) from its first records at Tama River, Japan and Ain Hanech, Algeria (1.8 Ma) <xref rid="BIB7" ref-type="bibr">[7]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB18" ref-type="bibr">[18]</xref>, Bed I of Olduvai, Tanzania (1.7 Ma) <xref rid="BIB5" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref> and at the site of Venta Micena, Spain (1.5-1.6 Ma) <xref rid="BIB11" ref-type="bibr">[11]</xref> until the Early-Middle Pleistocene transition, specially in Central and Western Europe <xref rid="BIB8" ref-type="bibr">[8]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB9" ref-type="bibr">[9]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB12" ref-type="bibr">[12]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB13" ref-type="bibr">[13]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB15" ref-type="bibr">[15]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB19" ref-type="bibr">[19]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB20" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref> but also in the Middle East <xref rid="BIB4" ref-type="bibr">[4]</xref>, Tajikistan <xref rid="BIB21" ref-type="bibr">[21]</xref>, China and Mongolia <xref rid="BIB20" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>, Indian Subcontinent <xref rid="BIB24" ref-type="bibr">[24]</xref>, and northern, eastern and southern Africa <xref rid="BIB1" ref-type="bibr">[1]</xref>, <xref rid="BIB5" ref-type="bibr">[5]</xref> and <xref rid="BIB26" ref-type="bibr">[26]</xref>. It is characterized by a reduction of the talonid width of the M<sub>1</sub>, size increase of the hypoconid which tends to occupy the central area of the talonid, and reduction of the entoconid, which in some forms of the late Early Pleistocene may be or may be not absent <xref rid="BIB20" ref-type="bibr">[20]</xref>. Also the width of the M<sub>2</sub> and the size of its protoconid are reduced (<xref rid="FIG3" ref-type="fig">Fig. 3</xref> ). The upper molars are also characterized by the reduction of the width, the increase of the trigon basin and the reduction to a very small or total absence of the basin between the protocone and the hypocone (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>). This form is recorded, under several different names (<italic>Canis falconeri, Canis (Xenocyon) falconeri, Xenocyon gigas, Xenocyon rosi, Xenocyon lycaonoides, Cuon stehlini, Canis atrox</italic> or <italic>Canis africanus</italic>) <xref rid="BIB16" ref-type="bibr">[16]</xref>.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The Middle Pleistocene represents a sort of bottle neck in the evolution of lycaons, with practically no record, until it appears a new outside Africa in the gateway to Eurasia at the early Middle Palaeolithic site of Hayonim, Israel (in oxygen isotope stage 6 or perhaps late stage 7), where a well preserved mandible has been found <xref rid="BIB22" ref-type="bibr">[22]</xref>. Although it is larger and has some primitive characteristics in the structure of the M<sub>1</sub> talonid, where a remnant of a small fold of the primitive entoconid is still present, in general its dental morphology is similar to the successful extant form of Africa, <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>, which has unicuspid M<sub>1</sub> talonid and a unicuspid M<sub>2</sub> trigonid (<xref rid="FIG1" ref-type="fig">Fig. 1</xref>). The upper molars have practically lost the hypocone and only one basin is present in the trigon.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
         <label>4</label>
         <title>Discussion and conclusion</title>
         <sec>
            <p>As we have seen in the description of the successive morphologies identified from Late Pliocene to Middle Pleistocene, this evolution is gradual. It is possible to identify, starting with the oldest specimens, the gradual development of extant <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic> morphologies. Gradual evolution has been described in the woolly mammoth <xref rid="BIB10" ref-type="bibr">[10]</xref>, where the gradual increase in the number of enamel plates has been detected from the Late Pliocene forms until the Late Pleistocene ones, as a result to the adaptation to a grazing diet in cold Quaternary climates.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>The hyper carnivorous adaptation is commonly observed in several carnivore lineages, especially in felids. Among canids this kind of adaptation characterizes different evolutionary lineages and has been used as an example of iterative evolution <xref rid="BIB27" ref-type="bibr">[27]</xref>. The evolutionary history of hunting dogs summarized in the present study shows the clear gradual evolution in morphology over time developing.</p>
         </sec>
         <sec>
            <p>As a consequence, we propose that all the forms of this lineage of hunting dogs should be incorporated into the genus <italic>Lycaon</italic>, with three chrono-species: <italic>Lycaon falconeri</italic>, for the Late Pliocene forms of Eurasia; <italic>Lycaon lycaonoides</italic>, for forms from the Early Pleistocene and the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene of Eurasia and Africa; and <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>, for the Middle–Late Pleistocene and extant African form.</p>
         </sec>
      </sec>
   </body>
   <back>
      <ack>
         <title>Acknowledgements</title>
         <p>This study was supported by grants of the Leakey Foundation, the CARE Foundation the Italian CNR and the Secretaria de Estado de Educación y Universidades (Spain)-Fondo Social Europeo. We thank A. Prill, O. Bar-Yosef, E. Tchernov, H. de Lumley, M.G. Leakey, G. Koufos, A. Koizumi, N. Goren-Inbar, A. Vekua, D. Lordkipanidze and P.-E. Moullé for their help to develop this research and for the access to collections in their Institutions. We also thank F. Clark Howell for his support and critical reading of an early draft of this paper, M. Pickford for its reading of the English text, J.R. Boisserie for the translation of the French version, and G. Petter and L. de Bonis for the revision and comments of the manuscript.</p>
      </ack>
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               <volume>44</volume>
               <year>1983</year>
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                  <surname>Ficcarelli</surname>
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      <fig id="FIG1">
         <label>Fig. 1</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Chronological distribution and gradual morphological transformation of upper and lower molars (occlusal views) of the clade <italic>Lycaon falconeri - Lycaon lycaonoides - Lycaon pictus</italic>. A) MCZ 22362; B) H-K21-547 (Hayonim, Israel; specimen figured as left); C) IQW 1985/20555 (Untermassfeld, Germany; from Sotnikova, 2001); D) 74-Long KI-Bone Bed I-87 Olduvai (Tanzania); E) IGF 865 (Upper Valdarno, Italy); F) MCZ 37597; G) MNHN 1949-2-723 (Ain Hanech, Algeria); H) AP 525 (Apollonia-1, Greece); and I) IGF 883. MCZ: Museum of Comparative Zoology, University of Harvard; IGF: ‘Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia’, University of Firenza; MNHN: ‘Muséum national d’histoire naturelle’, Paris.</p>
            <p>Fig. 1. Distribution chronologique et transformation morphologique graduelle des molaires supérieures et inférieures (vues occlusales) du clade <italic>Lycaon falconeri - Lycaon lycaonoides - Lycaon pictus</italic>. A) MCZ 22362 ; B) H-K21-547 (Hayonim, Israël ; spécimen représenté inversé à gauche) ; C) IQW 1985/20555 (Untermassfeld, Allemagne ; d’après Sotnikova, 2001) ; D) 74-Long KI-Bone Bed I-87 Olduvai (Tanzanie) ; E) IGF 865 (Valdarno supérieur, Italie) ; F) MCZ 37597 ; G) MNHN 1949-2-723 (Aïn Hanech, Algerie) ; H) AP 525 (Apollonia-1, Grèce) ; I) IGF 883. MCZ : Museum of Comparative Zoology, université de Harvard ; IGF: Museo di Geologia e Paleontologia, université de Florence ; MNHN: Muséum national d’histoire naturelle, Paris.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx1.jc3"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG2">
         <label>Fig. 2</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Geographic distribution of :<list>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>
                        <italic>Lycaon falconeri</italic> (white dots): 1) Fan Tsun; 2) Loc. 36; 3) Loc. 63; 4) Upper Valdarno.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>
                        <italic>Lycaon lycaonoides</italic> (black dots): 5) Venta Micena; 6) Cueva Victoria; 7) Vallonnet; 8) Pirro Nord); 9) Colle Curti; 10) Untermassfeld; 11) Gombaszög; 12) Morbach-2; 13) Würzburg-Schalkberg; 14) Stranska Skala; 15) Betfia XIII; 16) Apollonia 1; 17) ‘Ubeidiya; 18) Ahkalkalaki; 19) Lakhuti; 20) Campbellpore; 21) Loc. 18, Shansi; 22) MaFang, Shansi; 23) Zasukino; 24) Nalaikha; 25) Tama River; 26) Ain Hanech; 27) Olduvai Bed I and II; 28) Kromdraai A.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>
                        <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic> (grey dot): 29) Hayonim.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>Grey area represents the distribution of the extant hunting dog <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>.</p>
                  </list-item>
               </list>
            </p>
            <p>Fig. 2. Distribution géographique de :<list>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>
                        <italic>Lycaon falconeri</italic> (points blancs): 1) Fan Tsun; 2) Loc. 36; 3) Loc. 63; 4) Upper Valdarno.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>
                        <italic>Lycaon lycaonoides</italic> (points noirs): 5) Venta Micena; 6) Cueva Victoria; 7) Vallonnet; 8) Pirro Nord); 9) Colle Curti; 10) Untermassfeld; 11) Gombaszög; 12) Morbach-2; 13) Würzburg-Schalkberg; 14) Stranska Skala; 15) Betfia XIII; 16) Apollonia 1; 17) ‘Ubeidiya; 18) Ahkalkalaki; 19) Lakhuti; 20) Campbellpore; 21) Loc. 18, Shansi; 22) MaFang, Shansi; 23) Zasukino; 24) Nalaikha; 25) Tama River; 26) Ain Hanech; 27) Olduvai Bed I and II; 28) Kromdraai A.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>
                        <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic> (point gris): 29) Hayonim.</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                     <p>L’aire en gris représente la distribution du lycaon actuel <italic>Lycaon pictus</italic>.</p>
                  </list-item>
               </list>
            </p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx2.eps"/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="FIG3">
         <label>Fig. 3</label>
         <caption>
            <p>Gradual reduction in breath of the lower carnassial talonid (A) and of the lower second molar (B) within the clade <italic>Lycaon falconeri - Lycaon lycaonoides - Lycaon pictus</italic>.</p>
            <p>Fig. 3. Réduction graduelle de la largeur du talonide de la carnassière inférieure (A) et de la deuxième molaire inférieure (B) au sein du clade <italic>Lycaon falconeri - Lycaon lycaonoides - Lycaon pictus</italic>.</p>
         </caption>
         <graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="main.assets/fx3.eps"/>
      </fig>
   </floats-group>
</article>